The sense of taste provides animals with valuable information about the quality and nutritional value of food. Mammals can recognize and respond to a diverse repertoire of chemical entities, including sugars, salts, acids, and a wide range of toxic substances (see, e.g., Lindermann, Physiol. Rev. 76:718-766 (1996)). Our sense of taste is capable of detecting and responding to sweet, bitter, sour, salty and umami stimuli (Lindemann, Physiol. Rev. 76:718-766 (1996)). It is also responsible for distinguishing between these various taste modalities, for instance, the sweetness of honey from the bitterness of tonic water; the sourness of unripe fruit from the saltiness of the ocean. This discriminatory power provides valuable sensory input: bitter receptors elicit aversive behavioral reactions to noxious substances, while sweet receptors allow recognition of high caloric food sources.
We have been interested in basic questions of taste signal detection and information coding, and have focused on the isolation and characterization of genes encoding sweet and bitter taste receptors. The identification of taste receptors generates powerful molecular tools to investigate not only the function of taste receptor cells, but also the logic of taste coding. For example, defining the size and diversity of the receptor repertoire provide evidence for how a large number of chemosensory ligands may be recognized (i.e., molecular diversity), while analysis of the patterns of receptor expression contributes important insight to our understanding of chemosensory discrimination and coding. Recently, we described the isolation of two novel families of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) expressed in subsets of taste receptor cells of the tongue and palate (T1Rs and T2Rs; Hoon et al., 1999; Adler et al., 2000). One of these, the T2Rs, is a family of ˜30 different genes that include several functionally validated mammalian bitter taste receptors (Adler et al., 2000; Chandrashekar et al., 2000; Matsunami et al., 2000). Nearly all of the T2R-genes are clustered in regions of the genome that have been genetically implicated in controlling responses to diverse bitter tastants in humans and mice, consistent with their proposed role as bitter taste receptors (Adler et al., 2000).
Notably, most T2Rs are co-expressed in the same subset of taste receptor cells (Adler et al., 2000), suggesting that these cells are capable of responding to a broad array of bitter compounds, but not discriminating between them. This is logical for a sensory modality like bitter, in which the animal needs to recognize and react to many noxious tastants, but not necessarily discriminate between them (i.e., we need to know that a tastant is bad news, but not necessarily what makes it bad). This interpretation is consistent with behavioral and psychophysical findings in rodents and humans demonstrating limited discrimination between various bitter tastants (McBurney and Gent, 1979).
How is sweet taste specified? There is considerable evidence that G-protein coupled receptors are also involved in this taste modality (Lindemann, 1996). In contrast to bitter taste, the number of biologically relevant sweet tastants is modest. Thus, we might expect the sweet receptor family to be quite small. Interestingly, psychophysical, behavioral and electrophysiological studies suggest that animals distinguish between various sweet tastants (Schiffman et al., 1981; Ninomiya et al., 1984; Ninomiya et al., 1997), perhaps reflecting (and predicting) the organization of the sweet taste system into distinct types of sweet receptor cells and pathways.
Genetic studies of sweet tasting have identified a single principal locus in mice influencing responses to several sweet substances (Fuller, 1974; Lush, 1989). This locus, named Sac, determines threshold differences in the ability of some strains to distinguish saccharin-containing solutions from water (Fuller, 1974). Sac tasters respond to ˜5-fold lower concentrations of saccharin than “sweet-insensitive” Sac non-taster mice (Fuller, 1974; Capeless and Whitney, 1995); additionally, Sac influences preferences to sucrose, acesulfame-K and dulcin (Lush, 1989). Recently, several groups reported that a T1R-related gene, T1R3, might encode Sac (Kitagawa et al., 2001; Max et al., 2001; Montmayeur et al., 2001; Sainz et al., 2001). We now demonstrate that transgenic expression of T1R3 from a taster strain transforms sweet-insensitive animals to tasters, affirming T1R3 as the Sac gene. We then developed a cell-based reporter system to prove that T1Rs (T1R2 and T1R3) encode a functional, heteromeric sweet taste receptor. Lastly, we show that the patterns of T1R expression define at least three distinct cell types.
Several amino acids taste sweet or delicious (umami) to humans, and are attractive to rodents and other animals. This characteristic is noteworthy because L-amino acids function as the building blocks of proteins, as biosynthetic precursors of many biologically relevant small molecules, and as metabolic fuel. Thus, having a taste pathway dedicated to amino acid detection probably had significant evolutionary implications. We now identify and characterize a mammalian amino acid taste receptor. This receptor is a heteromeric receptor comprising the T1R1 and T1R3 G-protein coupled receptors of the T1R family. We demonstrate that T1R1 and T1R3 combine to function as an L-amino acid sensor, responding to most of the 20 standard amino acids but not to their D-enantiomers or other compounds.